我的拖鞋时尚物语果然有问题。

I firmly believe that with the right footwear one can rule the world.

出自 Bette Midler，一个如果我不上 GEC1042 一辈子都不会有所耳闻的美国女星。这是在 NUS 上的一门 CC，由于转学分不计入 GPA，再加上我对时尚总带有一种偏见 (刻奇？摹仿效应？生造的资本主义审美？)，在此之前我打算随便混混就好。但在这种走马观花的心态下上起来却意外的有意思，也了解到我的偏见反而是西方中心主义的产物。

Lecture 起到的大多是一个引入的作用，遂不多做记录。在这里就主要概括一下 Class Reading 中的一些有趣的文章。

  This article is a self-administered course note.

  It will NOT cover any exam or assignment related content.

Fashion: Overview

从学术角度来审视植根在「时尚」系统中深刻的权力结构不对等。

所谓 Fashion in Academia [The F-word]

• the paradox of academic attire - despite the lack of formal dress codes, professors often dress similarly, reflecting subtle social pressures within academic departments.
• Men: the semiotics of denim - male professors embraced casual styles to connect with students, but these attempts at youthfulness often resulted in unflattering, aging fashion choices.
• Women: authenticity v.s. disguise - female academics worry about not being taken seriously if they dress too fashionably, and provocative dress can even lead to inappropriate student comments, adding further anxiety about their appearance in the academic environment.

西方中心霸权话语下的「时尚」 [Introduction: Europe and the People Without Fashion]

• fundamental elements of fashion - changing styles and elitism
• criticism of current definition - 1) space: current fashion history is Eurocentric 2) time: exclusive to post-1350 Europe and its diaspora
• fashionable impulses - the primitive desire to decorate human body

The East is East: China

唐朝风尚 [Western Influences on Tang Dynasty Women's Fashion]

• Disregard of sumpturary laws (economic prosperity)
• Innovations in silk industry (technology)
• Influence of foreign cultures (cosmopolitanism)

Trickle Down Theory - 自顶向下的 catch-and-flight 策略。(e.g., 胡服骑射，cross-dressing)

Trickle Up Theory - 自底向上。(e.g., mini skirts, hippies fashion)

从缠足到高跟：中国的现代化前夜 [Jazzing into Modernity: High Heels, Platforms, and Lotus Shoes]

• Unlike men's fashion, which straightforwardly symbolized progress (queue cutting, yangfu), women's attire became a contentious issue, reflecting the nation's cultural identity and values.
• mimetic modernity highlights China's attempt to construct a modern identity by emulating the West while rejecting its own past. Women’s fashion, particularly the blending of traditional and modern elements, embodied the contradictions of this journey.
• high heel: the new form of footbinding (1927-1937). As political tensions grew in the 1930s, the cultural focus shifted towards the barefoot working class, celebrated as symbols of humanity and democracy. The bare foot, initially eroticized in Chinese urban culture (Golden Lotus), came to represent the pride and pain of manual labor, a shift that reflected the broader political and social changes leading up to the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
• the reinvention of Qipao and Manchu Platform Shoes. a shift in Chinese nationalism, where the Manchus, once vilified, were now seen as part of the modern Chinese identity, especially as Japan became the new national adversary (a change in the concept "native").

The East is East: Korea & Japan

朝鲜王朝：改佛尊儒 [Confucianism Manifested in Korean Dress from the 16th to 17th Centuries]

• Korea's history spans the Three Kingdoms (高句丽，百济，新罗), Koryo (高丽王国), and Choson dynasties (李氏朝鲜), each with different religious influences —— immortal beliefs, Buddhism, and Confucianism, respectively —— which shaped societal structures and the significance of commoners' dress.
• King Taejong (太宗大王) adopted Confucianism as the national religion to maintain social order, resulting in the publication of government and etiquette codes that embedded Confucian rituals into everyday life during the Choson dynasty.

日本：俭约令追赶的时尚 [Japanese Fashion: A Cultural History]

• Gomon & Yayoi Periods (縄文時代, 弥生時代): Anecdotally idealized as a utopian era before the influence of Chinese materialism led to clothing being used as a social, gender, and age marker.
• Yamato Period (大和時代): Introduction of sericulture (silk production) by Chinese settlers, with silk likely reserved for the elite.
• Asuka & Nara Periods (飛鳥時代, 奈良時代): Increased elaboration in clothing, particularly in court attire, formal wear, and uniforms.
• Heian Period (平安時代): Dominated by the Fujiwara family (藤原氏), this era saw the rise of a wealthy aristocracy in Heian-kyo (平安京).
  • The break from Chinese influence allowed a uniquely Japanese style to flourish.
  • Aesthetic pursuits like poetry, music, and clothing reflected the aristocracy's obsession on life's fleeting nature, a central theme in the period's culture (e.g., 紫式部 源氏物语).
• Kamakura Period (鎌倉時代): Shift to practical clothing due to the rise of the samurai class and a land-based economy.
• Ashikaga Period (足利時代): Zen Buddhism promoted simplicity and permanence, leading to the rejection of Heian luxury and a focus on cheaper materials and family crests for rank.
• Edo Period (江戸時代): Ruled by Tokugawa shogunate (徳川幕府), this era was marked by political stability, economic growth, and urbanization with a strict social hierarchy, especially in Edo.
  • Sankin-kōtai (参勤交代) and sumptuary laws regulated clothing and cultural expressions.
  • Development of a moral economy valuing work and thrift, with wealth accumulation seen as a virtue for future stability (新教伦理与资本主义精神？).
  • Despite regulations, the wealthy merchant and artisan classes expressed their affluence through subtle fashion, leading to the concept of iki (elegant chic).
  • Perry Expedition (黒船来航)
• Meiji Period (明治時代): Meiji Restoration - the path to modernity.

The West is West: Parision Mania

巴黎式时尚的诞生 [Paris Fashion: A Cultural History]

• The Birth of Paris Fashion (Philip the Good). Paris was not initially at the forefront of fashion. Cities like Florence and Venice, with their proto-capitalist economies, were far more fashion-forward than Paris, which was still dominated by agrarian aristocracy. French fashion emerged from regional courts, such as Burgundy, where luxury and fashion were tied to power.
• Fashion Follows Power: Spanish Black (Charles V and Philip II). Spanish fashion, especially the adoption of black, somber clothing, became a symbol of both religious piety and political authority.
• The Court of the Sun King (路易十四). Louis XIV's court at Versailles became the model for opulence and magnificence, with the Sun King using fashion as a tool to project power and control. The prestige of the French court, and the king's careful attention to his own appearance, helped solidify France's position as the fashion capital of Europe.
• The Rise of Paris Fashion (late 17th and early 18th centuries). 1) the formation of guilds for couturières (female dressmakers) and marchandes de modes (milliners), 2) The expansion of shopping streets like rue St. Honoré and the rise of fashion media, including fashion prints and dolls. 3) The growing importance of accessories and trimmings. 4) The clientele for Parisian fashion expanded to include aristocrats, wealthy bourgeois, and provincial visitors, making fashion more accessible to a broader audience.
• The Parisian Mania. The city became obsessed with new styles, and fashion began to reflect individual choice rather than being dictated by courtly authority (the court princesses began to feel frustrated).
• Men's Clothing: The English Connection. English aristocratic clothing, with its emphasis on practicality and simplicity, was adopted as men's fashion in France, and also became the foundation for modern men's attire. This shift was part of a broader cultural movement known as Anglomania, which celebrated English values of liberty and patriotism.
• Queen of Fashion (Marie Antoinette, 大革命前末代皇后). Although she was a trendsetter, her extravagant fashion choices, such as the chemise dress, contributed to her unpopularity.

克利诺林裙撑：奴役还是解放？[Fashion and Visual Culture in the 19th Century: The Crinoline Cage Transcript]

• Crinoline as a Paradox. The crinoline expanded women’s physical space while remaining lightweight, symbolizing both power and constraint. This paradox speaks to a larger tension in women’s roles during the period — where they were expected to be both visible (in terms of social presence) and invisible (in terms of agency and autonomy).
  • Birdcage skirt and exquisite slaves: symbol of woman’s domestic enslavement.
  • Instrument of Seduction: Swinging motion evokes a sexual agitation in men.
  • Expansive rights: the unapproachability of woman invaded men's space, resulted in male anxiety.
  • Subversion: Women could enjoy fashion as a source of narcissistic pleasure: They embraced the crinoline not just passively but as a way of exploring identity and social roles (拉康女性享乐？).
• Crinoline as a Pleasure. Fashion provided not just aesthetic enjoyment but sensory pleasure. With its layers of fabric, the crinoline offered a tactile experience that heightened women’s personal pleasure.
• Crinoline as a Duality. The crinoline symbolized modernity’s fleeting nature, with women’s fashion reflecting the rapid pace of change in the 19th century. However, it also linked to memory, as women recalled personal histories through the garments they wore. This duality of fashion — simultaneously ephemeral and rooted in memory — made the crinoline a metaphor for the passage of time.

太阳王路易十四：时尚操纵者 [Louis XIV’s Use of Fashion to Control the Nobility and Express Power]

• Fashion as a Financial Leash. Louis used elaborate, expensive fashion to keep the nobles dependent on him. By enforcing costly dress codes, many nobles fell into debt, which increased their reliance on the king for financial support and reduced their ability to rebel or challenge his authority.
• Symbolism of Fashion. Louis’s clothing choices, such as red heels, were symbols of power and status. Nobles wore expensive outfits to display their loyalty and position at court, and even foreign rulers adopted French fashion trends, showcasing Louis’s far-reaching influence.
• Fashion as a National Pride. Louis’s promotion of French-made fabrics like silk and velvet stimulated the local textile industry, providing jobs and boosting the economy. French fashion became a symbol of national pride, and its influence spread across Europe, reinforcing France's cultural dominance.

Chinoiserie & Japonisme

马可波罗再发现：「中国风」的女性主义反现代叙事 [Fashion, Chinoiserie and Modernism]

• Chinoiserie has historically been associated with fantasy and whimsy. It is a reinvented Chinese style by Europeans (广义的「中国风」包括服饰，建筑，室内设计与儒家思想).
• Chinoiserie & Woman's Modern Identities. Chinoiserie, through its luxurious materials, exotic imagery, and association with femininity, became a key tool for women to construct their modern identities. (宽松的中国风长袍以及较简约的发型是对束腰与发饰禁锢的逃离)
• Chinoiserie & Counter-Modernism. Rather than focusing on the rational and the functional, chinoiserie emphasized sensuality, surface beauty, and emotional affect. This "feminine" aesthetic could be seen as a counterpoint to modernism’s masculine focus on progress and technological advancement, reserving a space where women could express themselves through fashion and domestic design in ways that the mainstream modernist discourse did not fully accommodate.
• The bold colours and haptic sensuality of the predominant objects of interwar chinoiserie tended towards feminine forms of material culture, and were tied to earlier histories of chinoiserie or earlier histories of Chinese imperial splendour, inviting a double exclusion from the tenets of high modernism. (倾向于女性化的物质文化形式，与早期中国皇室的联系，使得「中国风」被双重排除在现代主义信条之外)

和服之殇：日本风，东方主义与殖民主义叙事 [Fashion and Orientalism]

• The Birth of Japonism. Japonism emerged in the mid-19th century when Japan opened its borders after centuries of isolation. Western markets, craving novelty, eagerly embraced Japanese art and goods. Japan, in turn, strategically marketed its cultural products to strengthen diplomatic ties and fuel trade.
• Cultural Hybridization and Orientalism. Japonism was a form of orientalism, where Japan was seen through an exotic lens. Japan presented itself in ways that appealed to the West, and Western artists also romanticized and eroticized the kimono, blending it with their own cultural motifs, creating a hybridized aesthetic.
• Kimono in Japan. The Meiji period reforms actively promoted the image of the "good wife, wise mother" (ryosai kenbo 良妻贤母), which became the archetype for the modern Japanese woman. The kimono was used as part of the state’s effort to shape the national identity of women, while men were encouraged to adopt Western suits as a symbol of modernization and progress (联想到 China 第二篇？).
• Kimono in the West. Like many other Japanese "decorative mise-en-scène" in Western bourgeois homes, in paintings and designs, the kimono-clad woman was often viewed as a decorative object, a passive and sensual figure embodying the exotic allure of the East. These depictions, however, reinforced Western stereotypes about Eastern women as submissive and alluring, tying into broader colonial narratives of the time.

Fashion and Revolution

旗袍：现代性的角力场 [Qipao China]

• Nationalism vs. Westernism / Tradition vs. Modernity. Qipao's hybrid style marks the struggle between embracing Western influences and asserting a distinct Chinese national identity.
• Conservatism vs. Liberalism. There was a clash between conservative views that sought to maintain a modest and restrained aesthetic for women’s clothing and liberal perspectives that embraced more daring and body-conscious designs.
• Sexuality vs. Morality. The design of qipao, which emphasized the female body, sparked debates over morality and sexuality. Critics often viewed them as symbols of the sexualization of women, aligning them with the flapper culture emerging globally at the time.
• Class and Social Status. The qipao’s popularity among actresses and the urban elite made it a status symbol, and sparked criticisms that it was disconnected from the everyday lives of most Chinese women.

明治维新：和洋服的分野 [Dressing Up During Meiji Restoration: A Perspective on Fukusei]

• 大久保利通「服制変革内勅」： 散髪，脱刀，略服，尚武。While the narrow construction of the new clothes was meant to evoke Western styles, it‘s important to note that the order made no explicit reference to a conversion to yōfuku. If it had, the anti-Western opposition would have inevitably opposed it.
• 華族的抵制。島津久光「十四ヶ条之建言」：Loose hair and the abandonment of the sword were “the foundations of disorderly customs.”
  • discomfort.
  • skepticism of social equality policies that were carried out at the expense of the class system, asserting that they could signifcantly undermine authority in the imperial nation.
• 不平士族的反抗。
  • a persistent xenophobia inherited from the late shogunal era.
  • discontent over their status symbol being taken away.
  • inability to get employment in the government and thus to acquire new elite symbols.
• 角力的结局：Public Yōfuku and Private Wafuku。
  • With the new clothing system taking root, yōfuku came to be seen as a necessity by the general public for government offcials in specifc roles.
  • The government offcials who wore yōfuku in public did not abandon traditional wafuku, which they wore for private events and meetings.
  • There was also a notable delay in female adoption of Western-style clothes.

Reference

  This article is a self-administered course note.

  References in the article are from corresponding course materials if not specified.

Course info: GEC1042 - Fashion: East and West, Prof. Courtney Fu Rong. Chinese Studies Department@NUS.

Course reading list: refer to the course website.